Journal of Documentary and Archival Studies

Abstract abstract
One of the key issues in understanding the Iranian administrative system is the study of its financial and monetary institutions throughout the premodern period. This institution, known as the dīvān al-istīfā (the financial administration), underwent significant changes and transformations over time. A detailed examination of dīvān al-istīfā can contribute to a better understanding of Iran’s financial and economic system. Financial records within the Iranian administrative system constitute an important yet understudied area of research. The main research question is: What were these financial records, and how did they change in terms of their number, types, and functions? The aim of this study is to identify these financial records and develop a thematic classification of them from the fourth century AH to the late Qajar period. The research corpus comprises treatises on siyāq, istīfā, and relevant historical documents. This study employs a descriptive-historical approach. The findings indicate that the number of financial records varied over the period under study, the highest number recorded in the fourth century AH and the lowest was in the twelfth century AH and the Afsharid period. In terms of their functions, the financial records can be classified into revenue records, expenditure records, and more limited records. The latter were concerned with recording the revenues and expenditures of the provinces. Some records, however, were also compiled for budget forecasting during the Qajar period. Some of these records, such as the Rūznāmcha and Awārja, existed throughout the periods under study, whereas others were used only during a particular period. Still others were incorporated into other financial records. A thematic analysis of the financial records indicates that the Iranian financial administration (dīvān al-istīfā) followed a systematic process for recording financial calculations.
Extended abstract
Introduction
Within the Iranian administrative system, a variety of administrative correspondence was conducted, reflecting the established practices of governance. The shah’s written orders were implemented through the bureaucratic hierarchy, and the bulk of this correspondence was handled by the dīvāns of inshā and istīfā. Scribal manuals were compiled to provide instruction in the proper composition of such correspondence. The dīvān al-istīfā (the financial administration) also produced documents. preparation and calculation of these documents required specific rules wich were taught by the mustawfīs and muḥarrirān. The types of correspondence in both dīvāns changed over time. Among the most important records of the dīvān al-istīfā were financial records in which the state’s revenues and expenditures were recorded and calculated, forming the basis for the preparation of the state budget. The main focus of this study is to examine the nature and subject matter of these financial records, as well as their changes in terms of number and subject from the fourth century AH to the end of the Qajar period.
Research method
This study employs a descriptive-historical approach. Its research corpus consists primarily of books and treatises written by mustawfīs. Since mustawfīs needed to be well versed in the arts of siyāq and istīfā to compile financial records, they incorporated these principles into their books so that they could serve as instructional resources for other mustawfīs and muḥarrirān. Therefore, these books provide valuable information on the number and subject matter of the financial records and constitute the primary sources for this study. Another group of sources consists of the administrative records of the Astan Quds Razavi that have survived from the Safavid period and provide more detailed information on the structure of the financial records. Examining other types of sources could be pursued in future research.
research findings
The study identified approximately 25 financial records within the Iranian financial administration, dating from the fourth century AH to the late Qajar period. The two types of financial records, Rūznāmcha and Awārja, were used under the same names and for the same purposes throughout all periods. Subsequently, the Tawjīhāt records came into use in the sixth century AH. Other financial records came into use during certain periods, while others were discontinued; some were renamed, whereas others were incorporated into other financial records. The largest number of financial records is found in al-Khwārizmī’s account in Mafātīḥ al-ʿUlūm. However, the exact function of some of the financial records he mentions remains unclear. The fewest financial records are attested for the Afsharid period. Between the seventh and ninth centuries AH, the number of records remained at seven or eight, suggesting that the financial record-keeping system underwent relatively little change during this period. During the Safavid period, five financial records are attested. Sources differ in their accounts of the number of financial records during the Qajar period. According to these accounts, the number ranges from a minimum of three to a maximum of seven financial records. However, this issue requires further investigation. From a thematic perspective, an examination of the financial records indicates that the Iranian financial administration followed a systematic approach to recording financial calculations, as evidenced by the distinct subject categories documented in these records. Initially, financial calculations were recorded on a daily basis. Subsequently, revenues were calculated and recorded in separate financial records (Awārja, Jāmiʿ al-Ḥisāb), while expenditures were recorded in other records (Tawjīhāt, Taḥwīlāt, Muqarrar-i Dīvān). The record-keeping system, however, was not limited to the central dīvān; records were also maintained for the provinces, generally on an annual basis, to document their revenues and expenditures (Mufrada, Juzʾ-i Jamʿ, Muḥāsaba). With regard to the budget record, which was explicitly intended for budget forecasting during the Qajar period, evidence for other periods is less conclusive. In these cases, its use for budget forecasting can only be inferred from the nature and functions of certain financial records, and therefore remains partly conjectural. Given the available sources, further comprehensive research on the financial records is needed to resolve the existing ambiguities.

Abstract Abstract
The emergence and expansion of the electric power industry, as one of the principal driving forces behind urban modernization, paved the way for the replacement of traditional lighting methods in the city of Sabzevar. The present study employs the historical method and draws upon newly discovered archival documents to examine the process through which the electric power industry was introduced, established, and expanded in the city. The findings indicate that this transformation began in 1928 (1307 SH) through the initiative of Mohammad Sorkhosh-Nia. Subsequently, the efforts of Haj Mohammad Hossein Dowlatabadi and Hossein Ghani in expanding generating capacity and extending the electricity distribution network played a significant role in consolidating and developing the electric power industry. Ultimately, with the establishment of the Sabzevar Regional Electricity Company, scattered individual initiatives were replaced by a centralized and institutionalized system of management. This transformation laid the foundations for the sustainable expansion of the urban electricity network and significantly increased public access to electric power.
Keywords: Sabzevar; Electric Power Industry; Pioneers; Urban Electricity Distribution Network Development; Pahlavi Period.
Introduction
Sabzevar, as one of the strategic centers located along the Silk Road and one of the principal commercial hubs of Khorasan, has long maintained a pioneering position in the adoption of modern technologies. The introduction of electric power into the city represented not merely a technological innovation but also a turning point in the transformation of its social and economic structures, as well as its system of urban administration. Prior to the establishment of the electric power industry, Sabzevar's urban lighting system relied on traditional lighting devices, including kerosene lamps, oil lanterns, and candles, which were fueled by oil and mazut. Even the efforts undertaken by the private sector in 1930 (1309 SH) to import and sell mantle lamps on an installment basis reflected the growing public demand for higher-quality lighting prior to the establishment and expansion of the urban electricity network.
Despite the significance of this technological transition, existing studies on the local history of Sabzevar, including the works of Bayhaqi, Amin, Seyadati, and Motavalli-Haghighi, as well as specialized studies on the electric power industry in Khorasan, particularly those conducted by Soaloni and his colleagues, have largely been limited to scattered references and lack a structural analysis of the relationship between the development of electric power infrastructure and the city's economic and social transformation. Furthermore, most existing accounts date the establishment of Sabzevar's first power plant to the period between 1930 and 1932 (1309–1311 SH). However, evidence published in contemporary newspapers, particularly Azadi during 1927 and 1928 (1306–1307 SH), indicates that the Municipality of Sabzevar had already initiated efforts to replace the traditional oil-based lighting system with electric lighting. These discrepancies between the prevailing historical narrative and documentary evidence form the basis of the present study and underscore the need for a reassessment of the origins and early development of electrification in Sabzevar.
Accordingly, the gap between the prevailing historical narrative and the available documentary evidence gives rise to the central research question of the present study: How did the transition from the traditional lighting system to an urban electric power system in Sabzevar take place, and what role did local actors play in managing and directing this structural transformation during the period from 1928 to 1978 (1307–1357 SH)?
Research Method
The present study employs the historical method and an analytical approach, drawing upon primary sources and newly discovered archival documents. In order to construct a documented account that extends beyond oral narratives, the study utilizes a diverse collection of archival records and specialized repositories covering the period from 1941 to 1977 (1320–1356 SH). The documentary foundation of this research was established through the collection, examination, and analysis of archival materials preserved in the National Library and Archives of Iran, the Sabzevar Municipality Archives, the Sabzevar City Museum, and, in particular, the specialized archives of institutions associated with the electric power sector, including the Sabzevar Electricity Company Archives and the Sabzevar Electric Power and Industries Joint Stock Company. The documentary corpus comprises a wide variety of materials, including official and personal correspondence, the legal statutes of former electricity companies (notably the Dowlatabadi Lighting Company), and financial records, such as electricity bills.
n this study, documentary content analysis has been employed to reconstruct the process through which the management of the electric power industry evolved from a traditional system to an institutionalized form of administration. The identification, collection, and analysis of these newly discovered archival materials extend beyond the presentation of a descriptive account; rather, they seek to address existing gaps in the economic and social historiography of the Pahlavi Period by providing a structural analysis of the relationship between technical infrastructure and transformations in urban governance. Furthermore, the use of documentary evidence drawn from multiple institutions, together with the cross-examination of their records, substantially enhances the credibility of the research findings and provides a well-documented, coherent, and relatively comprehensive account of the emergence and development of the electric power industry in Sabzevar.
Conclusion
The analysis of the development trajectory of the electric power industry in Sabzevar (1928–1979) demonstrates that this process extended beyond a mere technical transformation and reflected a complex transition from traditional structures to modern patterns during the Pahlavi era. The findings of the study explain this transformation at three analytical levels:
First, from an economic perspective, the development of the electric power industry began with a model based on “individual initiative and merchants’ risk-taking.” The transition from the importation of electrical equipment by pioneers such as Mohammad Sorkhosh-Nia and Dowlatabadi to the establishment of the “Sabzevar Electric Power and Industries Joint Stock Company” in 1947 (1326 SH) indicates the maturation of local investment and the shift from scattered individual activities toward the institutionalization of industrial enterprises.
Second, from a social perspective, the process of electrification reflected the class divisions within society. The existence of a dual system of electricity distribution—distinguishing between meter-based consumption for affluent households and flame-based lighting for lower-income groups—indicates that electric power technology was initially adopted primarily by the commercial sector and the more affluent strata of society before gradually extending to other social groups and urban areas.
Finally, from a structural perspective, the development of the electric power industry in Sabzevar resulted from the interaction between private investment and the facilitating role of public institutions, particularly the Municipality and the Governorate. The management of the industry, which initially emerged through the initiative of local merchants and under local administration, gradually shifted toward state control and the concentration of authority within regional institutions in response to expanding national policies and administrative requirements. Overall, the development of the electric power industry in Sabzevar represents a notable example of the process of urban modernization in Iran's second-tier cities, where the combination of entrepreneurial initiatives by development-oriented merchants and the support of administrative institutions laid the foundation for urban infrastructure development and broader urban transformation.

Abstract Abstract
This study examines the legal and commercial challenges confronting the port of Bushehr during the final years of the Qajar period, drawing on British consular records from 1911–1913 CE (1290–1292 SH). It focuses on identifying the nature of commercial and legal disputes and examining the role of the British Consulate in addressing and pursuing such claims. Employing a historical-analytical approach, combined with documentary research and qualitative content analysis, the study examines a three-page consular document as a case study. The findings indicate that commercial disputes, financial claims, and customs-related issues, amid the weakness of the Qajar state's judicial and executive institutions, created conditions conducive to consular intervention. In this context, the British Consulate went beyond its conventional administrative and diplomatic functions by pursuing claims and protecting British subjects and commercial interests. The document further demonstrates that consular records were not merely administrative accounts of commercial relations; rather, they reflected asymmetrical power relations and functioned as mechanisms through which Britain exercised economic and legal influence within Bushehr's commercial environment.
Extended abstract
Background and Research Problem
During the Qajar period, the port of Bushehr was one of the most important centers of maritime trade and a major hub connecting Iran to the Persian Gulf and international markets. The expansion of commercial activities in the port, accompanied by the growing presence of foreign merchants and companies, gave rise to a range of legal disputes and challenges concerning commercial transactions, financial claims, customs matters, and merchants’ obligations. Under these circumstances, the weaknesses and inadequacies of the Qajar state’s judicial and executive institutions, together with the extensive presence of foreign diplomatic and consular representatives, particularly those of Britain, led some commercial disputes being pursued outside the regular jurisdiction of Iranian official institutions and pursued through consular intervention. Accordingly, the central problem addressed in this study is to examine the nature of the legal challenges surrounding trade in Bushehr and to elucidate the role of the British consulate in addressing such disputes.
Research Objective
The primary objective of this study is to identify the major legal issues and disputes associated with trade in the port of Bushehr and to analyze the manner in which the British consulate intervened in these disputes. The study also seeks to determine the extent to which consular records can illuminate the legal and commercial relations of Bushehr and reveal the relationship between Iran’s judicial institutions and the interests of British subjects and merchants.
Research Method
This study employs a historical-analytical approach based on documentary research. Its primary data are drawn from British consular records concerning the port of Bushehr for the period 1911–1913 (1290–1292 SH). Among these records, a three-page document was selected as a case study, and its contents were examined using qualitative content analysis. The analysis focuses on the types of disputes, the subjects of contention, the parties involved, the manner in which the consulate pursued the cases, and the relationship between legal issues and British economic and political interests.
Research finding
The findings indicate that a substantial proportion of the issues reflected in the document concerned commercial disputes, financial claims, and customs disagreements. The document demonstrates that the British consulate did not merely act as an administrative intermediary in such cases. Rather, through correspondence, the pursuit of claims, and the protection of British subjects and commercial interests, it intervened in the process of resolving disputes. This situation was associated, on the one hand, with the limited capacity of the Qajar state’s judicial and executive institutions to manage commercial disputes effectively and, on the other, with Britain’s stronger economic and political position in the region.
Accordingly, the legal issues reflected in the document cannot be regarded merely as disputes between individuals or merchants. Rather, these claims and disputes emerged within the broader context of political, economic, and legal relations between Iran and Britain.
Conclusion
The examination of the case study demonstrates that British consular records, in addition to their administrative and legal value, constitute an important source for reconstructing the history of trade and legal relations in the port of Bushehr during the final years of the Qajar period. These records indicate that weaknesses in Iran’s domestic legal and judicial structures, together with the growing influence of foreign powers, created conditions in which consular representatives could play an effective role in commercial disputes and in protecting the interests of their nationals. From this perspective, consular records not only reflect the legal challenges associated with trade in Bushehr but also reveal asymmetrical power relations and the interconnectedness of commerce, law, and political influence in southern Iran during the late Qajar period.

Abstract The city of Golpayegan is one of the important cultural and historical cities of Iran. The dozens of cultural and scientific personalities who have emerged from this city and become famous are the reason for this statement. This city, along with its neighbor, Khansar, is one of the pleasant summer villages of Isfahan. In this article, a picture of this city and its handicrafts will be presented by referring to documents. First, a review of documents on the contemporary history of Golpayegan is given, and then it is explored that several industries, including woodcarving, inlay making, and carpet weaving, have grown in this city, and it has even excelled in the field of woodcarving in Isfahan province. Through the documents, government actions and policies in this regard are followed up. Finally, it becomes clear that the Pahlavi government, despite its efforts in marketing these industries, did not pay much attention to education and organizing exhibitions. For this reason, Golpayegan handicrafts, especially woodcarving, faced some problems.

Abstract Introduction
During the Islamic Revolution, wall inscriptions rapidly emerged as an important channel for political and social activism. By the second half of 1978, wall inscriptions, taking diverse forms and conveying a range of themes, had become an integral part of the discourse of revolutionary struggle. The primary objective of this study is to examine the various tools used in producing wall inscriptions, the ways in which they were executed in different settings, and the discursive themes reflected in the images, in order to gain insight into the intellectual perspectives of their producers, as well as to investigate the role of wall inscriptions in social networking and the political mobilization of different segments of society during the Islamic Revolution in Mashhad.
Research methodology:
Focusing on images of wall inscriptions in Mashhad collected from reliable archival sources, this study examines the messages of the Islamic Revolution within the urban environment through a qualitative approach and a descriptive-analytical method.
Research findings:
The findings indicate that revolutionaries employed simple and readily available tools to convey their messages. The sites where slogans were inscribed were predominantly the city’s central and heavily trafficked streets, as well as locations where significant events had taken place. The language of the wall inscriptions was clear, accessible, and free from stylistic complexity, addressing broad segments of society. They also played a key role in shaping the discourse of the Revolution and mobilizing public opinion against the Pahlavi regime, contributing significantly to the revolutionary developments during the winter of 1979 and, ultimately, to the victory of the Islamic Revolution.