Document Type : Original Article
Author
Independent researcher
10.30481/psa.2025.508834.1077
Abstract
Abstract
The Holy Shrine of Imam Reza is one of the first religious places in Iran that installed mechanical clocks, an advancement aimed at facilitating precise timekeeping for daily prayers through the expertise of Iranian specialists proficient in various sciences and industries. During the Safavid period (907–1148 AH), European travelers claimed that clock production and maintenance were exclusively belonged to Europeans, but the documents held in the Astan Quds Razavi Documentation Center show a contrasting reality. These documents show that in the administrative structure of the Holy Shrine, it was primarily Iranian artists who were clockmaker. Due to the critical nature of temporal precision, revenues from general and specific endowments were allocated for the procurement, maintenance, and technological equipping of these timepieces. This study is considered the first comprehensive study about the archival evidence on the history of mechanical clocks in the Holy Shrine of Imam Reza, the resident clockmakers, technical repairs, and the specific endowments dedicated to horological expenditures from the Safavid era onwards.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Man has always used various methods to measure time. Iranians have long been acquainted with temporal units, originally using sundials and water clocks. Following the advent of Islam in Iran, rudimentary solar indicators became prevalent in mosques. For Muslims, the meticulous observation of time was significant, as the five daily prayers, fasting, and the performance of Hajj rituals required precise chronological accuracy. Consequently, the science of Miqat (the knowledge of timekeeping) emerged, integrating technology into the religious life of people. This increased the reliance on water and solar clocks in sacred spaces.
According to the travelogues of European visitors such as Tavernier and Chardin, mechanical clocks entered Iran in the Safavid era, likely in the reign of Shah Abbas I, through the establishment of trading houses in Isfahan that specialized in the importation of timepieces. However, early historical narratives show that since these instruments were limited in number and their maintenance was managed by foreigners, their use was limited to the monarchy and the elite. Traditional methods remained the main tools of time determination in most religious centers.
In the Holy Shrine of Imam Reza, traditional methods included the renowned solar index of the Goharshad Mosque, the construction of which is attributed by archival evidence to the scholar Sheikh Bahaei. Moreover, the Naqqarehkhaneh (drum tower) played a significant role, announcing sunrise, sunset, and the prescribed religious times for the performance of rituals.
Objectives
Given the significance of timekeeping in religious centers for the performance of prayers and the determination of Owghat Sharei, several critical inquiries arise: Was the implementation of mechanical clocks customary in religious centers, and when did this transition occur? What is the historical evolutionary trajectory of these timepieces? Due to the significance of temporal measurement since the Safavid era, to what extent were the revenues from general and specific endowments used for the repairment, maintenance, and technological upgrading of the Shrine's clocks?
Review of Literature
A review of studies on clockmaking in the Holy Shrine of Imam Reza reveals that no independent study based on historical documents has yet focused the chronological evolution of these timepieces from the Safavid era. The literature shows only trivial data, primarily focused on the Qajar era. Consequently, this study tried to fill a significant historiographical gap by exploring the administrative documents of the Astan Quds Razavi from the Safavid era onward to provide scholars with comprehensive data.
Literature regarding the history of horology in Iran can be categorized as follows. The first category is papers: Early works include Pejman Bakhtiari’s translation in Armaghan (1306/1927), and Sepanta’s (1363/1984) study on the artistic and technical aspects of Iranian clocks. Other notable contributions are Nourbakhsh (1366/1987) on mechanical clocks, Sedaghatkish (n.d.) on general horology, Ghayebi (n.d.) on timekeeping in ancient Iran, and Ehyaei’s (n.d.) work on sundial construction. Moreover, Gheyasian and Mashhadi Noushabadi (1401/2022) analyzed the typology of the three clocks in Kashan's Emadi complex during the Timurid and Safavid periods. The second category is books: The History of Chronometry and the Clockmaking Industry (Karimian Sardashti, 1384/2005) is the most extensive general research in the field, yet it lacks specific reference to the horological history of the Holy Shrine. Moreover, regarding works specific to the Imam Reza Holy Shrine: Brief mentions of clocks exist in the Khorasan Guide (Shariati, 1345/1966), The History of Astan Quds (Motamen, 1348/1969), Shams al-Shomous (Ehtesham Kaviyanian, 1354/1975), and The History of Astan Quds Razavi (Ataradi, 1992). Articles such as Enduring Ticks and Tocks (Nafarman, 1384/2005) also deals with the subject. The first volume of the Astan Quds Razavi Encyclopedia contains an entry on "Clocks of Astan Quds", providing the first brief mention of Mohammad Karim, a clockmaker of the Safavid era , before detailing the installations in the Old and New Courtyards from the Qajar era.
Materials and Methods
This study is historical research that used a descriptive-analytical approach and focused on primary historical sources, specifically the administrative and administrative documents of the Astan Quds Razavi. Content analysis was done on a corpus of 234 documents from the Safavid and Afsharid periods (88 and 146 documents, respectively). Using these documents, the research explored professional titles, the identities of personnel, remuneration scales and types, and expenditures related to the tools and materials used for the repair and restoration of clocks. These elements characterize the Safavid and Afsharid eras as pivotal historical periods for the integration and maintenance of horological technology in the Imam Reza Holy Shrine.
Conclusion
The Holy Shrine stands as the pioneering religious sanctuary in Iran that integrated mechanical clocks into its sacred architecture. This implementation was driven by the spiritual exigencies of pilgrims that tried to maximize their devotional engagement and the administrative necessity for staff to provide structured services. Administrative documents and correspondence of the Safavid and Afsharid eras showed that the Safavid monarchs, followed by Nader Shah Afshar, were totally committed to the structural expansion of the Holy Shrine, using contemporary industries to facilitate the experience of pilgrims and residents. To this end, clocks were installed across various sectors of the Imam Reza Holy Shrine, as precise timekeeping was considered an essential requirement for the optimal performance of diverse rituals. Consequently, specialized clockmakers were appointed for the construction and repairment of these instruments. Clockmaking became a pivotal role in the administrative part, eventually evolving into a hereditary profession passed from father to son. Moreover, these timepieces were maintained by the skilled hands of the staff of the Holy Shrine, including polymathic artisans referred to in archival documents as Nader al-Asri. Recognizing the spiritual value of temporal measurement, benevolent donors from the Safavid period onward allocated revenues from general and specific endowments such as the Gowde Solouk farm and direct offerings to the zarih and pilgrims' gifts, for the purchasing, repairing, and technological upgrading of the Shrine's horological systems and the remuneration of its specialists.
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