Document Type : Original Article
Author
Expert in Document Studies, Organization of Libraries, Museums and Archives of Astan Quds Razavi
10.30481/psa.2025.519302.1081
Abstract
Abstract
The expansive administrative services of the Astan Quds Razavi, established during the Safavid era, resulted in the emergence of numerous jobs, following the central government. Among these jobs are Mohrdar (seal holder), Hakkak (engraver or seal maker), and Mohr Foroush (seal vendor). The seal bearing not only preserved seals but also had the task of the formal authentication of documents and decrees. Hakkak refers to the one who engraves inscriptions or images on gemstones or metals, designated as a “seal maker” when his work is in seal making. The Seal holder occupied a high-ranking bureaucratic position that persisted until the end of the Qajar era; however, the transition to signatures during the Pahlavi era made this job obsolete and led to the decline of seal engraving. Archival evidence show that the seal holder belonged to the administrative elite and had a significant socio-cultural, economic, and intellectual status. Their seal impressions can be found on promissory notes and financial disbursements of the Holy Shrine. The significance of this job during the Qajar period led to the creation of the Mohrdar Bashi position and the emergence of seal seller. Furthermore, some high-ranking officials had their own seal holders. The seal seller acted as an intermediary, selling seals produced by engravers in exchange for a commission. Notable among the engravers of the Qajar era was Mohammad Taher Hakkak, known as the Hakkak Bashi of the Holy Shrine. His workshop was in the Sahne Jadid of the Holy Shrine.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Lexicographically, a seal (mohr) denotes a sign or mark, while the seal holder is the custodian of such instruments. Traditionally the individual was entrusted with the kings’ seals. This role encompassed both the preservation of the seals and the act of affixing them to official documents and registers. The engraver is the craftsman who carves a text or image onto precious stones or metallic surfaces. The seal bearing and engraving in Iran goes back to the ancient Iran, when Sassanid kings used many seals for specific administrative functions, necessitating the formal job of the seal bearing for their security and application. During the Islamic era, the Arabs appointed a secretary as the Sahib al-Zamam to manage the caliph’s seals, a role functionally like the Persian royal seal holder. Under the Mongol and Ilkhanid administrations, these duties were done by the Bitikchis. Safavid sources show three distinct seal holders at courts, known as the Mohrdar of the Mohre Homayoun, the Mohrdar of the Mohre Sharaf Nefaz, and the Mohrdar of the Mohre Asaar. As the seal became central to bureaucratic legitimacy, the art of engraving gained a high status. However, with the modernization of administrative practices and the ascendancy of the signature in the Pahlavi period, the position of seal bearing became extinct, and the demand for seal engraving diminished, although this art persisted in other domains such as creating artistic ceramics, metal works, stone works, copper works, and lapidary arts.
In the administrative of the Astan Quds Razavi that followed the imperial court, the seal bearing and engraving jobs date back to the Safavid era. These roles account for a substantial portion of the archival records of the Holy Shrine. Consequently, analyzing the status of the seal holder and engraver as archaic and extinct professions is of significant academic merit. This study tried to explore the role and status of the seal holder and engraver in the bureaucratic context of Astan Quds Razavi through exploring the following issues: 1) the methods of appointment of seal holders and engravers, their professional mandates, and their salaries; 2) the number of these professionals in different historical periods and their socio-cultural, economic, and intellectual standings; 3) the number of surviving documents concerning these roles and the specific titles attributed to them in the three historical eras; 4) the functional role of the seal vendor.
Materials and Methods
The documents survived from the Safavid era on the administrative organization of the Astan Quds Razavi, preserved in the organization’s archives, have invaluable data on seal-related professions. The archive includes 2,494 documents referencing the profession of the seal holder, 913 concerning the engraver, 50 about the Hakkak Bashi (chief engraver), 34 regarding the Mohrsaz (seal maker), and 15 pertaining to the Mohrforoush (seal vendor). Most of these documents date back to the Qajar period. This study used a descriptive-analytical method to categorize these documents chronologically, specifically highlighting engravers whose collaboration with the Astan Quds Razavi was strictly limited to making seals.
Results
Documentary analysis showed that the profession of the seal holding and the art of the engraver performed pivotal functions in the administrative and fiscal systems of this religious organization. However, the modernization processes of the Pahlavi era resulted in the obsolescence of these roles and a shift in document authentication methods. Other researches can use the findings of this study to reconstruct the intricate socio-economic networks of these jobs more precisely.
Though the seal holder of the Holy Shrine did not equate to the imperial seal holder in terms of rank or salary, they were among the most trusted confidants of the custodian and were high-ranked administrative officials of the organization. Socially, they were regarded as intellectual and cultural personalities. Entrusted with the custody of the Shrine’s seals and the authentication of records, their seal impressions are visible on the majority of financial disbursements and payment orders, especially on the documents of the Qajar era. In the Safavid and Afsharid periods, they were appointed by the imperial court, whereas in the Qajar era, the appointment was made by the presiding custodian. The sensitivity of this role in the Qajar period led to the emergence of the Mohrdar Bashi (chief seal holder) and the Mohr Foroush (seal vendor). Furthermore, top officials such as the Motawalli, the Mostowfi, and the Nazer each maintained private seal holders. The seal vendor acted as a commercial intermediary for the engraver, receiving a commission for the sales. The work of the engraver involved the delicate engraving of metals and gemstones for seals, talismans, and coins. This traditional handicraft employed both intaglio and relief techniques. Mohammad Taher Hakkak, a well-known artist of the Qajar era was the Hakkak Bashi of the Holy Shrine. He was engaging in both seal production and coin engraving. Other engravers were either employed in the Keshiki (guard) services or received gratifications and wages for specific services. Mohammad Taher’s workshop was in the Sahne Jadid of the Holy Shrine. Several seal holders and engravers are buried in the courtyards of the Holy Shrine.
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