Journal of Documentary and Archival Studies

Abstract Abstract This study conducted a critical study on the ways of interaction and the structural connection between two significant socio-historical entities (i.e., the Bazaar and the Clergy) in the social context of Mashhad over the years before the triumph of the Islamic Revolution of Iran. This study claimed that in Mashhad, as one of the significant religious and political cities of Iran, there was a complex, multilayered, and symbiotic relationship between the two entities. The relationship played an important role in directing the revolutionary initiatives. Taking a descriptive-analytical method and collecting the required data from archives, library sources, and oral history interviews, this study tried to see how the Bazaar and the Clergy were interconnected in religious, economic, social, and political domains, and how this interconnection influenced the efficacy of people’s movements in Mashhad. The main hypothesis of this study was that the overlapping and interactive network between the Bazaar and the Clergy was a fundamental element of empowering people’s movements and resistance against the Pahlavi regime. The findings showed that the two entities, in a strategic and supportive interaction, were taking complementary roles. That is, the Bazaar took its ideological legitimacy and normative guidance from the Clergy, while the Clergy obtained its essential financial and social capital from the Bazaar. Key notes: 1. Analyzing the interaction between the Bazaar and the Clergy regarding religious, economic, socio-cultural, and political dimensions; 2. Explaining the complementary and synergistic roles of the two entities in people’s mobilization and the success of the Islamic Revolution in Mashhad; 3. Relying on primary archival data and the data obtained from oral history for the analysis of the local context. Extended Abstract Introduction The Islamic Revolution of Iran can be considered the outcome of the agency and institutional connection between different social institutions. In this regard, the Bazaar and the Clergy, as two traditional and socio-historical entities, played a significant and complementary role. The city of Mashhad, characterized by its profound religious heritage with the presence of high-ranking Maraje’ (religious authorities) and devout merchants, was the main canon for revolutionary mobilization. This study tried to see what interactions happened between the Bazaar and the Clergy in Mashhad from 1974 to 1979, and how this interaction empowered the revolutionary movement. The main hypothesis was that an overlapping and interactive network between the two entities constituted the main factor for fortifying the movements of the public. Materials and Methods This study used a descriptive-analytical method and collected data from library sources and archives, including the Islamic Revolution Documents Center, the National Archive of Iran, and the Document Center of Astan Quds Razavi. Furthermore, it incorporated oral history interviews with key activists from Mashhad's revolutionary era. To reveal the complexities of this relationship, the data were analyzed with respect to religious, economic, socio-cultural, and political aspects. Discussion and Conclusion The findings showed that this institutional relationship manifested across four distinct yet interconnected spheres: 1) Religious aspect: The Bazaar facilitated the dissemination of clerical discourse by hosting religious congregations and providing logistical support for religious entities. 2) Economic aspect: Merchants were a significant support of the movement as they financially supported religious activities and provided aid to the families of political detainees. 3) Socio-cultural aspect: The Bazaar became a center for the exchange of intellectual thought and the distribution of proclamations, and effectively functioned as a living medium. 4) Political aspect: The ideological alignment of the two entities resulted in the systematic organization of protests and imposed a challenge to the Pahlavi regime. The results of this study confirmed the primary hypothesis that cooperation between the Bazaar and the Clergy in Mashhad was the main driver of the people’s protest. Their traditional bond underwent a functional transformation into a revolutionary apparatus during the last years of the Pahlavi. This study showed that the Islamic Revolution of Iran was not merely the result of the actions of the elite, but rather it emanated from a historical and public coalition. This case study confirmed that analyzing traditional institutional interactions in local contexts yields a more profound understanding of the mechanisms by which the public is mobilized.

Abstract The Sixth National Consultative Assembly was inaugurated by Reza Shah on 10 July 1926, during the second year of his reign, and concluded its activities on 13 August 1928. Throughout its two-year tenure, the Assembly convened 276 sessions and enacted 218 legislative measures. Among its most significant legislative achievements were the approval of the Trans-Iranian Railway Bill, the establishment of the National Bank of Iran, the reorganization of the judicial system, and the enactment of the Civil Registration Act. In the sphere of foreign affairs, legislation concerning insurance, fisheries, and customs agreements with the Soviet Union was also ratified. Politically, this parliamentary term coincided with several important developments, including the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Seyyed Hassan Modarres, a member of parliament, as well as military uprisings in the provinces of Khorasan and Azerbaijan.
During this parliamentary term, Gholamreza Mahdavi, widely known as Reza Mahdavi (Raʾīs al-Tujjār), together with Hossein Mir-Momtaz, Malek Iraj Mirza Portimor, and Hassan Kafaei, represented Mashhad in the Sixth National Consultative Assembly. As one of the influential landowners, prominent merchants, and leading supporters of the government in Khorasan, Mahdavi played an active role in parliamentary deliberations. During debates on major legislative initiatives—including the Trans-Iranian Railway Bill, the establishment of the National Bank of Iran, rinderpest control measures, the state budget, and other legislative matters—he actively participated by presenting proposals and articulating his views on a wide range of parliamentary issues.
Introduction
Following the victory of the Constitutional Revolution in 1906, the Qajar government was compelled to accept popular demands and acquiesce to the establishment of constitutional rule and the rule of law. Consequently, Iran joined the ranks of constitutional states, and the First National Consultative Assembly (Majles), composed of representatives elected by the nation, was convened. During the Fifth National Consultative Assembly, Reza Khan, then serving as Minister of War, secured extensive influence over the legislature through military intervention in the electoral process in his own favor. Subsequently, after consolidating political power and founding the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925, he ascended the throne as Reza Shah. Against this political backdrop, the Sixth National Consultative Assembly, the first parliament of the Pahlavi era, was convened in the second year of his reign.
In his inaugural address at the opening ceremony of the Sixth Assembly, Reza Shah outlined his expectations and views regarding the duties and responsibilities of the members of parliament. During its tenure, the Assembly enacted several landmark pieces of legislation, including the Trans-Iranian Railway Act, the National Bank of Iran Act, the Judicial Reorganization Act, and the Civil Registration Act. Furthermore, the implementation of the Judicial Reorganization Act paved the way for the abolition of the Capitulations. In addition, the Municipal Law, which had originally been enacted during the First National Consultative Assembly and subsequently revised in the fourth and fifth parliamentary terms, was reconsidered in the Sixth Assembly. The representatives' proposed amendments were referred to the relevant parliamentary committee for further examination. In the realm of foreign affairs, the Sixth Assembly also ratified legislation concerning insurance, fisheries, and customs agreements with the Soviet Union, as well as treaty agreements concluded with Poland and Afghanistan.
from a political perspective, the events and developments of this period, as well as the manner in which members of parliament responded to them, deserve particular attention. In July 1926, military garrisons in Khorasan and Salmas in West Azerbaijan staged uprisings. Other major political developments of this parliamentary term included the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Seyyed Hassan Modarres, a member of parliament, the impeachment of Mostowfi al-Mamalek's cabinet, the uprising of Haj Aqa Nourollah Esfahani, and the assassination of Amir Tahmasb, a minister in the cabinet of Mehdi-Qoli Khan Hedayat. Accordingly, examining the positions and conduct of Mashhad's representatives in response to these political, social, regional, and national developments constitutes a significant field of historical inquiry.
The present study aims to examine the political positions and parliamentary performance of Gholamreza Mahdavi, one of Mashhad's four representatives in the Sixth National Consultative Assembly. It seeks to answer the following research question: What were the principal characteristics of Mahdavi's parliamentary performance and political conduct during the Sixth National Consultative Assembly? Despite the significance of this subject, no independent study has thus far been devoted specifically to this issue. The present research therefore seeks to fill this gap in the existing scholarship. The central hypothesis argues that, as one of Khorasan's leading merchants and a prominent supporter of the government, Mahdavi generally voted in favor of government-sponsored bills in accordance with the policies and expectations of the royal court, while devoting comparatively limited attention to the interests and demands of his electoral constituency. To address this hypothesis, the study examines Mahdavi's positions and activities from three interrelated perspectives: his role during the First Pahlavi period; his parliamentary activities, including legislative initiatives, proposals, and parliamentary questions; and his responses to the major political developments of the Reza Shah era
Literature Review
To date, Gholamreza Mahdavi's parliamentary activities during the Sixth National Consultative Assembly have not been examined in an independent and systematic study. Nevertheless, scattered information concerning his career can be found in a number of works on the history of legislation and biographical reference sources. Among these, Shaji'i (1996) focuses exclusively on parliamentary questions addressed by members of parliament to government ministers throughout the twenty-four legislative terms. In another publication, Shaji'i (1965) provides brief alphabetical biographical sketches of parliamentary representatives. Manouchehr Nazari has likewise compiled concise biographies of members of parliament accompanied by their photographs. In addition, Aqeli (2001) includes a brief biographical account of Gholamreza Mahdavi in his work on Iran's political and military figures. Shirin Mahdavi (2000) examines Mahdavi's family background, ancestry, and lineage, thereby providing valuable information on his familial origins. More recently, Jalil Qassabi Gazkuh (2023), in his master's thesis, has focused primarily on Mahdavi's commercial activities and his role in the economic life of Mashhad.
Despite the contributions of these studies, none has specifically examined Mahdavi's political positions, parliamentary performance, and role in the Sixth National Consultative Assembly. The present study therefore seeks to address this gap in the existing scholarship.

Research Method
The present study employs the historical method within a descriptive-analytical framework. It is primarily based on the Proceedings of the National Consultative Assembly (Majles), including both the printed edition (5,024 pages) and the 2013 digital edition (CD-ROM). In addition, the study draws upon archival documents preserved in the Library, Museum and Documentation Center of the Islamic Consultative Assembly, the Astan Quds Razavi Library, and contemporary newspapers published during the period under investigation. These primary sources provide the basis for examining and analyzing Gholamreza Mahdavi's political positions and parliamentary conduct with respect to major government bills and the principal political developments of the Reza Shah era.
Conclusion
Gholamreza Mahdavi, originally from Isfahan, served as the representative of Mashhad in the First National Consultative Assembly and was a cousin of Amin al-Zarb II, the Deputy Speaker of that Assembly. Despite his Isfahani origin, he was regarded as a native of Khorasan because of his father's long-term residence in Mashhad and the family's extensive landed estates in the region. Mahdavi was elected to the Fourth National Consultative Assembly with the support of Qavam, the Governor of Khorasan, and secured election from Sabzevar in the Fifth Assembly through government backing amid an electoral process marked by irregularities. He was among the signatories of the republican proposal introduced during the Fifth Assembly; however, following the changing political circumstances, he supported the abolition of the Qajar monarchy and, as Sabzevar's representative in the Constituent Assembly, voted in favor of Reza Khan's accession to the throne. He subsequently entered the Sixth National Consultative Assembly through an election influenced by military intervention. Among Mashhad's representatives, Mahdavi maintained the closest relationship with the royal court, enjoyed direct access to Reza Shah, and was on close terms with the Minister of the Court, who played a decisive role in the conduct of parliamentary elections.
Compared with the other three representatives of Mashhad, Raʾīs al-Tujjār demonstrated the highest level of parliamentary activity in terms of speeches, legislative initiatives, proposals, and parliamentary questions addressed to government ministers. His extensive parliamentary experience, repeated electoral success, and close relationship with the government undoubtedly shaped both his political positions and legislative conduct. Consequently, political considerations appear to have taken precedence over local concerns in many of his parliamentary decisions. Although his attendance record was relatively poor, the frequency, diversity, and clarity of his speeches and proposals reflected his considerable parliamentary experience, political influence, and the support he enjoyed from the royal court. Nevertheless, he devoted relatively little attention to the interests of his constituency, particularly the city of Mashhad. Moreover, even in cases where he spoke as an opponent of a government bill during parliamentary debates, he ultimately voted in its favor. His membership in the Budget Commission, one of the Assembly's most influential standing committees, further illustrates both his political standing and the confidence placed in him by the government. By contrast, his frequent absences and repeated requests for leave should be regarded as among the principal shortcomings of his parliamentary career.

Abstract Coffeehouse painting, as one of the most prominent manifestations of popular art in Iran, shared a profound connection with the beliefs of the lower social classes during the Qajar and Pahlavi eras. This style, particularly in its representation of the Ashura event, was not merely a tool for religious narration but also a visual medium for the manifestation of religious identity and beliefs. However, one overlooked dimension in the studies of this field is the examination of human garments in these illustrations; elements that play a significant role in conveying meaning, social class, religious identity, and characterization. The present research aims to identify and compare the types of garments worn by human elements in the works of two eminent masters of the Coffeehouse painting school, Hossein Qollar Aghasi and Mohammad Modabber, seeking to answer this primary question: What similarities and differences exist in the human-centric garments in the selected Ashura-themed works of these two artists? This study has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and a qualitative approach. The findings indicate that the human garments in these works, concerning the types of headgear, cloaks, robes, military attire, and women's clothing, while maintaining similar structures, possess significant differences in form, color, decorations, and the level of detail. In Qollar Aghasi's works, greater emphasis is placed on the emotional aspect, and the garments are depicted with more simplicity and symbolism. In contrast, Modabber paid special attention to color richness, textural variety, and intricate detailing in the representation of garments, thereby highlighting the epic dimension of the narrative more prominently. The results of the research suggest that garments in Ashura paintings are not merely decorative elements but are tools for conveying class-related concepts, which each artist has represented differently according to their individual perspective and the cultural milieu of their time. A typology of these garments provides a deeper understanding of the visual semiotics of Coffeehouse art and the pictorial narrative of Ashura.

Abstract Abstract
Persian paintings, particularly the works of Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād, have long been regarded as valuable visual sources for understanding various aspects of historical realities, including lifestyles, clothing, architecture, and related social and cultural practices. This study aims to elucidate the relationship between women’s clothing and the physical characteristics of architectural spaces depicted in Behzād’s miniatures. The main research question is: What relationship exists between women’s clothing and architectural features in Behzād’s miniatures? The study adopts a descriptive-analytical method and a qualitative approach. The study population of the study comprises 13 miniatures attributed to Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād. The findings indicate that there is a limited relationship between women’s clothing as depicted in the miniatures and the types of architectural spaces. This relationship was observed primarily in certain chromatic correspondences between women’s clothing and architectural elements, with some miniatures exhibiting a degree of color harmony between the characters’ garments and the colors employed within the architectural spaces. However, no significant relationship was observed in other elements, including the form of women’s clothing and the relationship between the decorative motifs of garments and architectural elements. The simultaneous presence of clothing and architecture in the miniatures appears to have been shaped more by the painter’s artistic choices, the demands of artistic expression, and the narrative nature of the works than by an intention to provide an accurate representation of the social realities of the period.
literature of review
To date, numerous studies have been conducted on Timurid miniature painting, women’s clothing, and architectural spaces, each addressing one aspect of the subject under investigation in the present study. Razannejad Yazdi et al. (2017), in their article entitled “An Examination of the Social Status of Women with an Emphasis on Women’s Clothing in Timurid-Era Miniatures,” analyze women’s clothing as depicted in the miniatures of this period. According to this study, women in the Timurid period were depicted in the miniatures in accordance with their social status: court women portrayed in luxurious clothing, while women from the general population were depicted in simpler clothing. Mohammadi (2024), in the article entitled “An Examination of the Social Status of Court Women in Timurid Miniatures,” analyzes the roles of women at court and the ways in which they were represented in Timurid miniatures; however, the study focuses primarily on the courtly context rather than on architectural elements. This study demonstrates that Timurid miniature painting was not merely an artistic form but also a significant visual source for understanding the roles, social status, and lifestyles of women of the Timurid dynasty within the political and cultural context of the period. Kazempour et al. (2018), in their article entitled “Reconstructing Timurid Architectural Ornamentation in the Miniatures of Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād,” provide a detailed analysis of architectural ornamentation in Behzād’s works. An examination of three works by Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād reveals that key features of Timurid architecture—including arches, portals, architectural forms, tilework, and characteristic decorative elements—are represented across settings such as bathhouses, palaces, and mosques. David J. Roxburgh (1999), in his article entitled “Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād and the Concept of Authorship in Persian Painting,” argues that, through innovative compositional strategies, close attention to the details of everyday life, the depiction of diverse human expressions, and the careful integration of figures with their spatial settings, Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād introduced a new form of realism into Persian miniature painting. This new form of realism was not merely the product of Behzād’s individual genius; rather, it emerged from the interplay of established workshop traditions, courtly patronage, and the growing need to render the social realities of his time in a more tangible and perceptible manner. The distinctive feature of the present study lies in its comparative examination of the relationship between women’s clothing and the architectural features of the spaces depicted in the miniatures. In most previous studies, attention has been devoted exclusively to one of these two elements, while the relationship between them has received comparatively limited analytical attention.

Research method
This study adopts a qualitative approach and employs a descriptive-analytical research methodology. All miniatures relevant to the subject of this study were collected from a range of sources and systematically examined. A comparative analysis was then conducted across elements such as clothing styles, colors, spatial settings, motifs, and decorative elements in order to determine whether a relationship exists between women’s clothing and architectural features.
Study population
Based on the scholars of miniatures’ examination, a total of 99 miniatures attributed to Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād were identified in which architectural elements are depicted with notable precision and diversity. In the present study, a total of 13 miniatures from illustrated Timurid manuscripts attributed to Kamāl al-Dīn Behzād were subjected to detailed analysis. The aim was to comparatively examine architectural features and women’s clothing within a common analytical framework. Of the 13 miniatures examined, only two examples, selected for their particularly close correspondence and clarity in the representation of the subject.
Conclusion
Given the realism associated with Behzād’s miniature painting and the longstanding interplay between architecture and patterns of life, one would expect women’s clothing in these miniatures to correspond more closely with the architectural features of the depicted settings. However, the findings indicate that this relationship is reflected only to a limited extent, primarily through color and other minor forms of visual correspondence. This negative finding is nevertheless significant, as it demonstrates that even in ostensibly realistic miniatures, the visual representation of everyday life—particularly women’s clothing—does not necessarily correspond to the same degree of specificity or fidelity as the representation of architectural features. In other words, the limited correspondence between women’s clothing and architectural features should not be regarded as a shortcoming of the study; rather, it highlights the representational constraints of Timurid miniature painting and provides a basis for comparative studies of other artistic schools and periods.

Abstract The article adopts a bold approach, analyzing the “locked” state of digital archives not merely as a technical problem, but as a human challenge rooted in “systemic distrust.” This approach brings about a fundamental shift in the research paradigm surrounding digital archives and information science. This is because, unlike previous studies that have primarily focused on developing algorithms and technical solutions, this research demonstrates that even the most advanced technologies lose their effectiveness in the absence of “social capital” and trust among stakeholders. This approach highlights the importance of human trust and the quality of interactions among human actors as essential conditions for the successful use of digital archives, positioning the research as a pioneering and transformative contribution to the field. The article adopts an interdisciplinary approach to analyze this phenomenon, examining its various dimensions simultaneously. Archival and information sciences are employed to analyze operational and professional challenges; Digital Humanities to serve as a bridge between technology and content; technology ethics to examine ethical challenges associated with artificial intelligence; and organizational studies and the sociology of professions to understand the dynamics of trust and collaboration. This interdisciplinary approach was developed through semi-structured interviews with thirty specialists. This method enables a deeper understanding of concepts such as trust, facilitates more comprehensive and in-depth analysis, and provides access to the underlying attitudes, fears, and assumptions of the actors involved. In domestic research, digital archives and artificial intelligence have primarily been examined from two perspectives: technical and engineering, and library and archival studies. Studies with titles such as “Intelligent Algorithms for Information Retrieval in Digital Archives” and “Technical Solutions for the Preservation and Maintenance of Digital Resources” focus primarily on the instrumental and infrastructural dimensions of this phenomenon. By contrast, only a limited number of studies have addressed the human, cultural, and social dimensions of this field. For example, articles focusing on “Ethical Requirements in the Digital Environment” or “Access Policies in National Archives,” although they have addressed issues of trust and ethics, have rarely placed them at the center of their analysis. Moreover, they have not explored the systematic interrelationship between “trust” and “artificial intelligence” as a fundamental issue in unlocking digital archives. through its theoretical boldness, the present article not only addresses a gap in the international literature but also offers a conceptual framework for Persian-speaking researchers, encouraging them to move beyond the dominance of technical approaches and place the examination of “trust” and “human relationships” at the heart of future research on emerging technologies in the fields of archives and information. The translation and critique of this work can initiate interdisciplinary dialogue within the domestic academic community, which appears essential for moving beyond the stage of technological dominance toward the stage of its judicious integration with human values. The findings of the study indicate that distrust in digital archives has three structural dimensions that operate as interconnected barriers. First, interpersonal distrust, or “professional othering,” arising from misunderstandings and a lack of mutual understanding between archivists and researchers. A clear example is the expectation among researchers that archivists preserve “everything,” even though such an undertaking is not practically feasible. The second case is technological distrust, rooted in fears of the erosion of professional authority. Archivists whose professional identities are grounded in control over collections tend to resist against tools that could diminish their authority over those collections. Third, institutional distrust, whereby artificial intelligence is viewed not only as a tool that can reinforce systemic biases but also as a mechanism for legitimizing them. when an algorithm produces a decision, the result may appear objective and impartial, even though it can be shaped by underlying power structures and institutional biases. In addressing these challenges, the article shifts its focus away from technical solutions and emphasizes the need to foster dialogue and meaningful human interaction. The concept of the “archival loop,” as a powerful metaphor, brings all stakeholders—from document producers to final users—within a shared ecosystem of common interests. It suggests that the restoration of this fragmented loop can be achieved through dialogue and mutual understanding. Nevertheless, the study also has certain limitations, including a limited analysis of the distribution of power and privilege among stakeholders and the absence of an operational model for structuring such dialogue in a way that adequately accounts for differences in the institutional positions and levels of access among participants. Overall, this article offers a novel framework for analyzing and making sense of trust. Its scholarly contribution lies not in the development of a new algorithm, but lies in proposing an analytical framework that shifts the pathway toward opening up digital archives from technology to anthropology, and from hardware and software to social capital and human trust. The study’s central message is clear: before making any technical investment, it is essential to invest in trust and human relationships among stakeholders, as trust is what enables the meaningful use of technology and facilitates the development of a dynamic and ethically grounded ecosystem.
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The research article entitled “Artificial Intelligence in Digital Archives: Trust, Collaboration, and Shared Professional Ethics,” authored by Lise Jaillant of Loughborough University and Arran Rees of the University of Leeds, was published in 2023 in volume 38, issue 2 of Digital Scholarship in the Humanities. The article is published on pages 571–585 and has the DOI 10.1093/llc/fqac073. It was initially made available online through Advance Access on 17 November 2022 and was subsequently peer-reviewed and accepted as a Full Paper. The article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits its use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that appropriate credit is given to the original source. The article was published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Association for Digital Humanities (EADH). The version cited in this study was retrieved from the publisher’s website.

Abstract abstract
One of the key issues in understanding the Iranian administrative system is the study of its financial and monetary institutions throughout the premodern period. This institution, known as the dīvān al-istīfā (the financial administration), underwent significant changes and transformations over time. A detailed examination of dīvān al-istīfā can contribute to a better understanding of Iran’s financial and economic system. Financial records within the Iranian administrative system constitute an important yet understudied area of research. The main research question is: What were these financial records, and how did they change in terms of their number, types, and functions? The aim of this study is to identify these financial records and develop a thematic classification of them from the fourth century AH to the late Qajar period. The research corpus comprises treatises on siyāq, istīfā, and relevant historical documents. This study employs a descriptive-historical approach. The findings indicate that the number of financial records varied over the period under study, the highest number recorded in the fourth century AH and the lowest was in the twelfth century AH and the Afsharid period. In terms of their functions, the financial records can be classified into revenue records, expenditure records, and more limited records. The latter were concerned with recording the revenues and expenditures of the provinces. Some records, however, were also compiled for budget forecasting during the Qajar period. Some of these records, such as the Rūznāmcha and Awārja, existed throughout the periods under study, whereas others were used only during a particular period. Still others were incorporated into other financial records. A thematic analysis of the financial records indicates that the Iranian financial administration (dīvān al-istīfā) followed a systematic process for recording financial calculations.
Extended abstract
Introduction
Within the Iranian administrative system, a variety of administrative correspondence was conducted, reflecting the established practices of governance. The shah’s written orders were implemented through the bureaucratic hierarchy, and the bulk of this correspondence was handled by the dīvāns of inshā and istīfā. Scribal manuals were compiled to provide instruction in the proper composition of such correspondence. The dīvān al-istīfā (the financial administration) also produced documents. preparation and calculation of these documents required specific rules wich were taught by the mustawfīs and muḥarrirān. The types of correspondence in both dīvāns changed over time. Among the most important records of the dīvān al-istīfā were financial records in which the state’s revenues and expenditures were recorded and calculated, forming the basis for the preparation of the state budget. The main focus of this study is to examine the nature and subject matter of these financial records, as well as their changes in terms of number and subject from the fourth century AH to the end of the Qajar period.
Research method
This study employs a descriptive-historical approach. Its research corpus consists primarily of books and treatises written by mustawfīs. Since mustawfīs needed to be well versed in the arts of siyāq and istīfā to compile financial records, they incorporated these principles into their books so that they could serve as instructional resources for other mustawfīs and muḥarrirān. Therefore, these books provide valuable information on the number and subject matter of the financial records and constitute the primary sources for this study. Another group of sources consists of the administrative records of the Astan Quds Razavi that have survived from the Safavid period and provide more detailed information on the structure of the financial records. Examining other types of sources could be pursued in future research.
research findings
The study identified approximately 25 financial records within the Iranian financial administration, dating from the fourth century AH to the late Qajar period. The two types of financial records, Rūznāmcha and Awārja, were used under the same names and for the same purposes throughout all periods. Subsequently, the Tawjīhāt records came into use in the sixth century AH. Other financial records came into use during certain periods, while others were discontinued; some were renamed, whereas others were incorporated into other financial records. The largest number of financial records is found in al-Khwārizmī’s account in Mafātīḥ al-ʿUlūm. However, the exact function of some of the financial records he mentions remains unclear. The fewest financial records are attested for the Afsharid period. Between the seventh and ninth centuries AH, the number of records remained at seven or eight, suggesting that the financial record-keeping system underwent relatively little change during this period. During the Safavid period, five financial records are attested. Sources differ in their accounts of the number of financial records during the Qajar period. According to these accounts, the number ranges from a minimum of three to a maximum of seven financial records. However, this issue requires further investigation. From a thematic perspective, an examination of the financial records indicates that the Iranian financial administration followed a systematic approach to recording financial calculations, as evidenced by the distinct subject categories documented in these records. Initially, financial calculations were recorded on a daily basis. Subsequently, revenues were calculated and recorded in separate financial records (Awārja, Jāmiʿ al-Ḥisāb), while expenditures were recorded in other records (Tawjīhāt, Taḥwīlāt, Muqarrar-i Dīvān). The record-keeping system, however, was not limited to the central dīvān; records were also maintained for the provinces, generally on an annual basis, to document their revenues and expenditures (Mufrada, Juzʾ-i Jamʿ, Muḥāsaba). With regard to the budget record, which was explicitly intended for budget forecasting during the Qajar period, evidence for other periods is less conclusive. In these cases, its use for budget forecasting can only be inferred from the nature and functions of certain financial records, and therefore remains partly conjectural. Given the available sources, further comprehensive research on the financial records is needed to resolve the existing ambiguities.